Employment protection and collective bargaining during the great recession: a comprehensive review of international evidence
Palabras clave:
Labour market reform, employment protection, flexibility, collective agreements.
Resumen
In this article, we present information from a unique database of labour market reforms implemented in 111 developed and developing countries between 2008 and 2014. We show that the number of reforms implemented each year has gradually increased up to 2012 and that the majority of reforms were passed in advanced economies – with some EU member states particularly hit by the crisis being the most active reformers (e.g. Spain, Greece, Italy). Moreover, the results show that permanent contracts and collective bargaining were the most popular areas of labour market policy interventions and that the majority of reforms decreased the strictness of employment protection legislation – although large disparities emerge across world regions in this respect. Finally, the article compares our database to different indicators of employment regulation in order to check the consistency of our results.
Citas
Acharya, V.V., Baghai-QWadji, R. and Susbramanian, K. 2009. “Labor Laws and Innovation”, Discussion Paper No. 7171, CEPR, London, UK.
Adascalitei, D. and Pignatti, C. 2015. “Labour market reforms since the crisis: Drivers and consequences”, ILO Research Paper Series. ILO, Geneva (forthcoming)
Allard, G.J. and Lindert, P.H. 2007. “Euro-Productivity and Euro-Jobs since the 1960s: Which Institutions Really Mattered?”, in T.J. Hatton, K.H. O’Rourke and A.M. Taylor (Eds.), The New Comparative Economic History: Essays in Honor of Jeffrey G. Williamson, Cambridge, MA, US and London, UK, MIT Press.
Almeida, R.K.; Carneiro, P. 2008. Enforcement of labor regulation and firm size, SP Discussion Paper No. 0814 (Washington, DC, World Bank).
Amadeo, Edward J., Gill, Indermit, S. Gill and Neri, M. 2000. “Brazil: The Pressure Points in Labor Legislation”. Ensaios Economicos da EPGE n. 395.
Amuedo-Dorantes, C. and Malo, M.A. 2008. "How are fixed-term contracts used by firms? An analysis using gross job and worker flows", Research in Labor Economics, Vol. 28, pp. 277-304.
Baccaro, L. and Rei, D. 2007. “Institutional Determinants of Unemployment in OECD Countries: Does the Deregulatory View Hold Water”, International Organization, Vol. 61, pp. 527-69.
Bassanini, A. and Duval, R. (2006). “The determinants of unemployment across OECD countries”, OECD Economic Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 7–86.
Bassanini, A., Garnero, A., Marianna, P., Martin, S. 2009. “Institutional determinants of worker flows: A cross-country/cross-industry approach”, OECD Social, employment and migration paper No. 107
Bentolila, S. and Dolado, J.J. 1994. “Labour flexibility and wages, lessons from Spain”, Economic Policy, 18, 54–99.
Bentolila, S., Izquierdo, M. and Jimeno, J.F. 2012. “Negociación colectiva: La gran reforma pendiente.” Papeles de Economía Española, 124, 176‐192.
Bertola, G., Boeri, T. and Cazes, S. 2000. "Employment Protection in Industrialized Countries: The Case for New Indicators", International Labour Review, Vol. 139, No. 1, pp. 57-72.
Besley, T.; Burgess, R. 2004. “Can labor regulation hinder economic performance? Evidence from India”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 119, No. 1, pp. 91–134
Blanchard, O. and Wolfers, J. 2000. “The Role of Shocks and Institutions in the Rise of European Unemployment: The Aggregate Evidence”, Economic Journal, Vol. 110, C1-C33.
Blanchard, O. and Galí J. 2007. “Real Wage Rigidities and the New Keynesian Model.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 39(S1): 35–65.
Blanchard, O. 2010. “Labor Markets and Monetary Policy: A New Keynesian Model with Unemployment”, American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 1–30.
Boeri, T., Garibaldi, P. and Ribeiro, M. 2010. "Behind Lighthouse Effect," IZA DP No. 4890.
Boeri, T.; Helppie, B. and Macis, M. 2008. Labor Regulations in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence and Directions for Future Research, Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 0833.
Botero, J.C., Djankov, S., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Sinales, F. and Shleifer, A. 2004. “The Regulation of Labor”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 119, pp. 1339-82.
Bruno, M., and Sachs, J. D. 1985. Economics of worldwide stagflation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Caballero, R.J., Cowan, K.N., Engel, E.M.R.A. and Micco, A. 2004. “Effective Labor Regulation and Microeconomic Flexibility”, Working Paper 10744, NBER, Cambridge, MA, US.
Calmors, L., and Driffill, J. 1988. “Centralization and wage bargaining”, Economic Policy, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 13-61.
Cazes, N. and Nesporova, A. 2007. “Labour Markets in Central and South-Eastern Europe: From Transition to Stabilization”, in S. Cazes and A. Nesporova (Eds.) Flexicurity: A Relevant Approach in Central and Eastern Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, ILO.
Cazes, S. and Verick, S. 2013. Perspectives on Labour Economics for Development, Geneva, Switzerland, ILO.
Cazes, S., Khatiwada, S. and Malo, M.Á. 2012. “Employment Protection and Collective Bargaining: Beyond the Deregulation Agenda”, Employment Working Papers Nº 133, ILO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Djankov, S. and Ramalho, R. 2009. “Employment laws in developing countries”, Journal of Comparative Economics 37, 3-13.
Feldmann, H. 2003. “Labor Market Regulation and Labor Market Performance: Evidence Based on Surveys among Senior Business Executives”, Kyklos, Vol. 56, pp. 509-539.
Feldmann, H. 2009. “The Unemployment Effects of Labor Regulation around the World.” Journal of Comparative Economics, Vol. 37, pp. 76-90.
Freeman, R.B. 2010. “Labor regulations, unions, and social protection in developing countries: Market distortion or efficient institutions”, in D. Rodrik and M. R. Rosenzweig (eds): Handbook of development economics (North Holland, Elsevier).
García-Martínez, P. and M.A. Malo. 2007. “The Strategic Use of Dismissal Legislation: An Empirical Analysis Using Spanish Data”, European Journal of Law and Economics, 23, 151-167.
García-Serrano, C. 2008. "Job satisfaction, union membership and collective bargaining", European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 91-111.
Garibaldi, P. and Violante, G.L. 2005. “The Employment Effects of Severance Payments with Wage Rigidities”, Economic Journal, Vol. 115, pp. 799-832.
Golden, M.A. and Londregan, J.B. 2006. “Centralization of bargaining and wage inequality: A correction of Wallerstein”, American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 208-213.
Gómez-Salvador, R.; J. Messina and G.. Vallanti, 2004. “Gross Job Flows in Europe”, Labour Economics, 11: 469-485.
Griffith, R., Harrison, R. and Macartney, G. 2007. “Product Market Reforms, Labour Market Institutions and Unemployment”, Economic Journal, Vol. 117, C142-C166.
Haltiwanger, J., Scarpetta, S. and Schweiger, H. 2014. Cross country differences in job reallocation: The role of industry, firm size and regulations', Labour Economics, Vol. 26, 11-25.
Hayter, S. 2011. The Role of Collective Bargaining in the Global Economy. Negotiating for Social Justice. Cheltenham, UK: Edward ElgarPublishing – International Labour Organization.
Hayter, S. and Weiberg, B. 2011. “Mind the gap: collective bargaining and wage inequality”, chapter 6 in Hayter (2011), pp. 136-186.
Heckman, J.J. and Pagés-Serra, C. 2000. “The Cost of Job Security Regulation: Evidence from Latin American Labor Markets”, Economía, Vol. 1, pp. 109-44.
ILO 2012a. Better Jobs for a Better Economy. World of Work Report 2012. International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Organization, Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2012b. Statistical update on employment in the informal economy, ILO, Department of Statistics, Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2013. Portugal: Tackling the Jobs Crisis. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2014a. Spain: Growth with Jobs. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2014b. Greece: Productive Jobs. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2015a. World Employment and Social Outlook - Trends 2015. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2015b. World Employment and Social Outlook: The Changing Nature of Jobs. Geneva (Switzerland).
Jimeno, J.F. and Toharia, L. 1996. “Effort, Absenteeism, and Fixed Term Employment Contracts”, Revista Española de Economía, 13(1): 105-119.
Kahn, L.M. 1998. “Against the wind: bargaining recentralisation and wage inequality in Norway 1987-1991”, Economica, Vol. 65, No. 260, pp. 507-534.
Lafontaine, F.; Sivadasan, J. 2009. “Do labor market rigidities have microeconomics effects? Evidence from within the firm”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 88–127.
Lazear, E. 1990. “Job Security Provisions and Employment”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 105, pp. 699-726.
Lucidi, F. and Kleinknecht, A. 2010. “Little innovation, many jobs: An econometric analysis of the Italian labour productivity crisis”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 34: 525-546.
Maloney, W. F. and Nuñez, J. 2004. “Measuring the Impact of Minimum Wages: Evidence from Latin America”. In J. Heckman and C. Pagés (eds.), Law and Employment. Lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Messina, J. and Vallanti. G. 2007. “Job Flow Dynamics and Firing Restrictions: Evidence from Europe”, Economic Journal, Vol. 117, F279-F301.
Micco, A.; Pagés, C. 2006. The economic effects of employment protection: Evidence from international industry-level data, Discussion Paper No. 2433 (Bonn, Institute for the Study of Labour (IZA)).
Muller, A. 2011. “Employment protection legislation tested by the economic crisis. A global review of the regulation of collective dismissals for economic reasons”, ILO DIALOGUE in Brief No. 3.
Neri, M., Gonzaga, G. and Camargo, J. M. 2000. "Efeitos Informais do Salário Mínimo e Pobreza". Texto para discussão n. 724, IPEA
OECD. 1997. “Economic Performance and the Structure of Collective Bargaining” in OECD Employment Outlook 1997. OECD Publishing, Paris.
Nickell, S. 1997. “Unemployment and Labor Market Rigidities: Europe versus North America”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 55-74.
Skedinger, P. 2010. Employment Protection Legislation. Evolution, Effects, Winners and Losers. Edward Elgar.
Skedinger, P. 2011. “Employment Consequences of Employment Protection Legislation”, IFN Working Paper No. 865, Research Institute of Industrial Economics
Souza, P. and Baltar P. 1980. "Salario Minimo E Taxa De Salarios No Brasil — Replica", Pesquisa e Planejamento Economico, 10:1045-1058.
Traxler, F. 1994. “Collective Bargaining: Levels and Coverage”. Chapter in OECD, Employment Outlook, 1994: 167-94.
Traxler, F. and Brandl, B. 2011. “The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining Coverage”. Chapter in Hayter (2011).
Venn, D. 2009. “Legislation, collective bargaining and enforcement: Updating the OECD employment protection indicators”, Working Paper 89 (Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, OECD, Paris).
Wallerstein, M. 1999. “Wage-setting institutions and pay inequality in advanced industrial societies”, American Journal of Political Science, 43(3), 649-680.
Adascalitei, D. and Pignatti, C. 2015. “Labour market reforms since the crisis: Drivers and consequences”, ILO Research Paper Series. ILO, Geneva (forthcoming)
Allard, G.J. and Lindert, P.H. 2007. “Euro-Productivity and Euro-Jobs since the 1960s: Which Institutions Really Mattered?”, in T.J. Hatton, K.H. O’Rourke and A.M. Taylor (Eds.), The New Comparative Economic History: Essays in Honor of Jeffrey G. Williamson, Cambridge, MA, US and London, UK, MIT Press.
Almeida, R.K.; Carneiro, P. 2008. Enforcement of labor regulation and firm size, SP Discussion Paper No. 0814 (Washington, DC, World Bank).
Amadeo, Edward J., Gill, Indermit, S. Gill and Neri, M. 2000. “Brazil: The Pressure Points in Labor Legislation”. Ensaios Economicos da EPGE n. 395.
Amuedo-Dorantes, C. and Malo, M.A. 2008. "How are fixed-term contracts used by firms? An analysis using gross job and worker flows", Research in Labor Economics, Vol. 28, pp. 277-304.
Baccaro, L. and Rei, D. 2007. “Institutional Determinants of Unemployment in OECD Countries: Does the Deregulatory View Hold Water”, International Organization, Vol. 61, pp. 527-69.
Bassanini, A. and Duval, R. (2006). “The determinants of unemployment across OECD countries”, OECD Economic Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 7–86.
Bassanini, A., Garnero, A., Marianna, P., Martin, S. 2009. “Institutional determinants of worker flows: A cross-country/cross-industry approach”, OECD Social, employment and migration paper No. 107
Bentolila, S. and Dolado, J.J. 1994. “Labour flexibility and wages, lessons from Spain”, Economic Policy, 18, 54–99.
Bentolila, S., Izquierdo, M. and Jimeno, J.F. 2012. “Negociación colectiva: La gran reforma pendiente.” Papeles de Economía Española, 124, 176‐192.
Bertola, G., Boeri, T. and Cazes, S. 2000. "Employment Protection in Industrialized Countries: The Case for New Indicators", International Labour Review, Vol. 139, No. 1, pp. 57-72.
Besley, T.; Burgess, R. 2004. “Can labor regulation hinder economic performance? Evidence from India”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 119, No. 1, pp. 91–134
Blanchard, O. and Wolfers, J. 2000. “The Role of Shocks and Institutions in the Rise of European Unemployment: The Aggregate Evidence”, Economic Journal, Vol. 110, C1-C33.
Blanchard, O. and Galí J. 2007. “Real Wage Rigidities and the New Keynesian Model.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 39(S1): 35–65.
Blanchard, O. 2010. “Labor Markets and Monetary Policy: A New Keynesian Model with Unemployment”, American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 1–30.
Boeri, T., Garibaldi, P. and Ribeiro, M. 2010. "Behind Lighthouse Effect," IZA DP No. 4890.
Boeri, T.; Helppie, B. and Macis, M. 2008. Labor Regulations in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence and Directions for Future Research, Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 0833.
Botero, J.C., Djankov, S., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Sinales, F. and Shleifer, A. 2004. “The Regulation of Labor”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 119, pp. 1339-82.
Bruno, M., and Sachs, J. D. 1985. Economics of worldwide stagflation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Caballero, R.J., Cowan, K.N., Engel, E.M.R.A. and Micco, A. 2004. “Effective Labor Regulation and Microeconomic Flexibility”, Working Paper 10744, NBER, Cambridge, MA, US.
Calmors, L., and Driffill, J. 1988. “Centralization and wage bargaining”, Economic Policy, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 13-61.
Cazes, N. and Nesporova, A. 2007. “Labour Markets in Central and South-Eastern Europe: From Transition to Stabilization”, in S. Cazes and A. Nesporova (Eds.) Flexicurity: A Relevant Approach in Central and Eastern Europe, Geneva, Switzerland, ILO.
Cazes, S. and Verick, S. 2013. Perspectives on Labour Economics for Development, Geneva, Switzerland, ILO.
Cazes, S., Khatiwada, S. and Malo, M.Á. 2012. “Employment Protection and Collective Bargaining: Beyond the Deregulation Agenda”, Employment Working Papers Nº 133, ILO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Djankov, S. and Ramalho, R. 2009. “Employment laws in developing countries”, Journal of Comparative Economics 37, 3-13.
Feldmann, H. 2003. “Labor Market Regulation and Labor Market Performance: Evidence Based on Surveys among Senior Business Executives”, Kyklos, Vol. 56, pp. 509-539.
Feldmann, H. 2009. “The Unemployment Effects of Labor Regulation around the World.” Journal of Comparative Economics, Vol. 37, pp. 76-90.
Freeman, R.B. 2010. “Labor regulations, unions, and social protection in developing countries: Market distortion or efficient institutions”, in D. Rodrik and M. R. Rosenzweig (eds): Handbook of development economics (North Holland, Elsevier).
García-Martínez, P. and M.A. Malo. 2007. “The Strategic Use of Dismissal Legislation: An Empirical Analysis Using Spanish Data”, European Journal of Law and Economics, 23, 151-167.
García-Serrano, C. 2008. "Job satisfaction, union membership and collective bargaining", European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 91-111.
Garibaldi, P. and Violante, G.L. 2005. “The Employment Effects of Severance Payments with Wage Rigidities”, Economic Journal, Vol. 115, pp. 799-832.
Golden, M.A. and Londregan, J.B. 2006. “Centralization of bargaining and wage inequality: A correction of Wallerstein”, American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 208-213.
Gómez-Salvador, R.; J. Messina and G.. Vallanti, 2004. “Gross Job Flows in Europe”, Labour Economics, 11: 469-485.
Griffith, R., Harrison, R. and Macartney, G. 2007. “Product Market Reforms, Labour Market Institutions and Unemployment”, Economic Journal, Vol. 117, C142-C166.
Haltiwanger, J., Scarpetta, S. and Schweiger, H. 2014. Cross country differences in job reallocation: The role of industry, firm size and regulations', Labour Economics, Vol. 26, 11-25.
Hayter, S. 2011. The Role of Collective Bargaining in the Global Economy. Negotiating for Social Justice. Cheltenham, UK: Edward ElgarPublishing – International Labour Organization.
Hayter, S. and Weiberg, B. 2011. “Mind the gap: collective bargaining and wage inequality”, chapter 6 in Hayter (2011), pp. 136-186.
Heckman, J.J. and Pagés-Serra, C. 2000. “The Cost of Job Security Regulation: Evidence from Latin American Labor Markets”, Economía, Vol. 1, pp. 109-44.
ILO 2012a. Better Jobs for a Better Economy. World of Work Report 2012. International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Organization, Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2012b. Statistical update on employment in the informal economy, ILO, Department of Statistics, Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2013. Portugal: Tackling the Jobs Crisis. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2014a. Spain: Growth with Jobs. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2014b. Greece: Productive Jobs. Studies on Growth with Equity. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2015a. World Employment and Social Outlook - Trends 2015. Geneva (Switzerland).
ILO. 2015b. World Employment and Social Outlook: The Changing Nature of Jobs. Geneva (Switzerland).
Jimeno, J.F. and Toharia, L. 1996. “Effort, Absenteeism, and Fixed Term Employment Contracts”, Revista Española de Economía, 13(1): 105-119.
Kahn, L.M. 1998. “Against the wind: bargaining recentralisation and wage inequality in Norway 1987-1991”, Economica, Vol. 65, No. 260, pp. 507-534.
Lafontaine, F.; Sivadasan, J. 2009. “Do labor market rigidities have microeconomics effects? Evidence from within the firm”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 88–127.
Lazear, E. 1990. “Job Security Provisions and Employment”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 105, pp. 699-726.
Lucidi, F. and Kleinknecht, A. 2010. “Little innovation, many jobs: An econometric analysis of the Italian labour productivity crisis”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 34: 525-546.
Maloney, W. F. and Nuñez, J. 2004. “Measuring the Impact of Minimum Wages: Evidence from Latin America”. In J. Heckman and C. Pagés (eds.), Law and Employment. Lessons from Latin America and the Caribbean. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Messina, J. and Vallanti. G. 2007. “Job Flow Dynamics and Firing Restrictions: Evidence from Europe”, Economic Journal, Vol. 117, F279-F301.
Micco, A.; Pagés, C. 2006. The economic effects of employment protection: Evidence from international industry-level data, Discussion Paper No. 2433 (Bonn, Institute for the Study of Labour (IZA)).
Muller, A. 2011. “Employment protection legislation tested by the economic crisis. A global review of the regulation of collective dismissals for economic reasons”, ILO DIALOGUE in Brief No. 3.
Neri, M., Gonzaga, G. and Camargo, J. M. 2000. "Efeitos Informais do Salário Mínimo e Pobreza". Texto para discussão n. 724, IPEA
OECD. 1997. “Economic Performance and the Structure of Collective Bargaining” in OECD Employment Outlook 1997. OECD Publishing, Paris.
Nickell, S. 1997. “Unemployment and Labor Market Rigidities: Europe versus North America”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 55-74.
Skedinger, P. 2010. Employment Protection Legislation. Evolution, Effects, Winners and Losers. Edward Elgar.
Skedinger, P. 2011. “Employment Consequences of Employment Protection Legislation”, IFN Working Paper No. 865, Research Institute of Industrial Economics
Souza, P. and Baltar P. 1980. "Salario Minimo E Taxa De Salarios No Brasil — Replica", Pesquisa e Planejamento Economico, 10:1045-1058.
Traxler, F. 1994. “Collective Bargaining: Levels and Coverage”. Chapter in OECD, Employment Outlook, 1994: 167-94.
Traxler, F. and Brandl, B. 2011. “The Economic Impact of Collective Bargaining Coverage”. Chapter in Hayter (2011).
Venn, D. 2009. “Legislation, collective bargaining and enforcement: Updating the OECD employment protection indicators”, Working Paper 89 (Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, OECD, Paris).
Wallerstein, M. 1999. “Wage-setting institutions and pay inequality in advanced industrial societies”, American Journal of Political Science, 43(3), 649-680.
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2015-12-01
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